Normal Speech and Language Development

Source with many thanks to Brenda Smith
Department of Education, Student Support Services Division, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador.

The following outlines normal speech and language development. It provides a comprehensive outline to assist teachers in understanding the developmental process of speech and language. It is important to remember the developmental stage of the student with special needs. Due to the highly variable nature of syntactic and morphological development, as well as the lack of research in the area, the following statements should be considered as approximate age levels at which certain forms and constructions may appear.

0 - 3 Months

Phonology


• Birth cry - undifferentiated
• Reflexive soundmaking: produces k, l, g, h glottal catch, front vowels, ah, eh, uh
• Some variety in non-crying sounds
• Sucks well with inner mouth parts and lips
• Differentiated cry (true vocal communication begins)
• Coos and gurgles
• Produces single syllables
• Begins blowing bubbles


Semantics


• Makes eye contact briefly
• Stops movement or quiets in response to sound (responds more readily to speech than to non-speech sounds)
• Startle response to loud sound
• Visually tracks
• Moves eyes toward source of sound
• Attends to voice - turns head toward voice
• Reflexive smile
• Fixes gaze on spoon or bottle
• Quiets when picked up
• (ATTENDING PHASE 0 - 9 MONTHS) prerequisite of semantic development


Play


• Long spells of staring vacantly at large masses (windows, walls)
• Hands predominantly closed > no reaching to grasp objects
• If hand is touched, either clenches or opens
• Reacts to paper or cloth on face
• Raises head when prone
• Grasps object when placed in hand
• Reaches for object but misses (3 months)




4 - 6 Months

Phonology


• Babbling begins - Double Syllables - Puts lips together - says “m” - uses nasal tone
• Vocalizes pleasure and displeasure


Semantics


• Actively seeks sound source - turns head toward sound without aid of visual stimulation
• Smiles in response to speech and feelings of pleasure
• Fixes gaze on face
• Anticipates feeding upon sight of bottle
• Discriminates strangers
• Looks in response to own name
• Watches or closely attends to movement patterns
• Smiles on sight of face
• Recognizes spoon or bottle
• Indicates displeasure on withdrawal of objects
• (ATTENDING PHASE 0 - 9 MONTHS) prerequisite of semantic development


Play


• Raises head and chest when prone
• Puts object in mouth
• Watches hands
• Plays actively when propped in play area - 10-15 minutes
• Looks intently at and shakes rattle
• On visual cue, free hand comes toward but does not grasp rattle
• Pays attention to cube on table
• May detect a tiny pellet
• Generally inspects surroundings
• Smiles, fingers mirror image
• Increases activity at sight of toy
• Works for toy out of reach
• Exploitative in string play
• Head control established in midline
• Bangs with object held in hand
• Transfers object from one hand to another
• Rolls over - both ways




7 - 9 Months

Phonology


• Uses m, n, t, d, b, p, z, in babbling multiple syllables
• Babbles tunefully - singing tones
• Uses wide variety of sound combinations including non- English sounds
• Inflected vocal play - intonation patterns heard
• Interjectional vocalizations
• Imitates intonation and speech sounds of others (9 months)


Semantics


• Responds to facial expressions
• Attempts to imitate gross gestures
• Comprehends parental gestures
• Recognizes others
• Looks at some common objects when names are spoken
• Looks at family members when named
• Comprehends “no” - inhibits on command
• Interest in pictures maintained for full minute while they are named
• Shy, clings to adult in presence of stranger
• (ATTENDING PHASE 0 - 9 MONTHS) prerequisite of semantic development
• Frequently cries when parent leaves the room
• Shouts to attract attention, listens, then shouts again
• May say “da-da” or equivalent
• Some gesture language: plays pat-a-cake, peek-a-boo, byebye, shakes head for no
• Sight of object or person produces gross gesture (emerging nomination)
• Imitates ringing of bell


Play


• Uncovers hidden toy (beginning of object permanence)
• Grasps dangling object
• Explores toy with fingers and mouth
• Hitching present
• Bounces when supported in standing position
• Sits without support
• Uses pincer grasp to pick up small object
• Drinks from cup
• Eyes and hands function in close interaction
• Imitates arm movements
• Bangs spoon on table
• Rings bell and smiles at sound
• Pulls self to standing position
• Crawls on belly
• Holds down bottle, feeds self cracker




10 - 12 Months

Phonology


• Vocalizes during play
• Vocalizes to mirror
• Jabbers loudly - wide variety of sounds and intonations
• Uses all sounds (consonants and vowels) in vocal play
• Closes mouth without drooling
• Jargon begins as babbling stops
• May acquire first true word (10 - 18 months)


Semantics


• Begins to relate symbol and object - first true word
• Gives block, toy, or object on request
• Understands and follows simple commands regarding body action
• Responds with searching movements to simple questions
• Looks in correct place for toys out of sight
• Turns head immediately to own name
• Understands the meaning of “hot”
• In presence of more than one object, shows awareness of more than one
• Names or looks for object out of sight - first true word
• Gestures and/or vocalizes to indicate wants and needs (emerging state, recurrence, nomination)
• Begins to vary behaviour according to emotional reactions of others - repeats performances which are laughed at
• Recognizes inverted object - emerging awareness of top/bottom, front/back


Play


• Squeezes doll to make it squeak
• Regards and pokes clapper of bell (beginning cause/effect)
• Deliberately drops toys and watches them fall
• Plays ball with another person
• Still brings objects to mouth - uses tongue more
• Puts objects in and takes them out of large container (beginning awareness of in/out)
• Places one block after another on table (prerequisite to counting)
• Responds to music
• Holds crayon - imitates scribble
• Takes a few steps with help
• Brings one object momentarily above another (emerging awareness of spatial concepts precedes block stacking)
• Stacks rings on a peg




1.1 - 1.6 Years (13 - 18 Months)

Phonology


• Uses sentence-like intonations (jargon)
• Some Echolalia
• Uses all vowels and consonants in jargon
• Omits final consonants and some initial consonants
• Basically unintelligible with exception of a few words


Semantics


• Follows simple one-step commands
• Points to objects he/she recognizes (emerging nomination)
• Points to objects he/she wants (emerging state)
• Begins to claim certain objects as his/her own (emerging possession)
• Points to one to three body parts in command
• Identifies two or more objects or pictures from a group
• Perceives emotion of others
• Uses 3 to 20 words
• Vocalizes with gestures
• Says, “All gone” (emerging negation)
• Answers question, “What’s this?”
• Asks for “more” (emerging recurrence)


Play


• Solitary or onlooker play - self play
• Continual walking activities
• Begins running - stiff and awkward
• Scribbles spontaneously with crayon
• Removes mittens, socks, hat - unzips zipper
• Throws, picks up object, and throws again
• Puts objects in and out of containers
• Figures out ways of overcoming some obstacles (opening doors, reaching high places)
• Imitates many things (sweeping, combing hair - self use)
• Pulls toys - carries or hugs doll, teddy bear
• Very rapid shifts in attention - especially expressed by gross motor shifts


Syntax - Morphology


• 50% of all utterances are nouns
• Mean length of response - 1.2 words

1.7 - 2.0 Years (19 - 24 Months)

Phonology


• More words than jargon - jargon almost gone by 2 years
• Asks questions with rising intonation at end of phrase
• Improvement in intelligibility - approximately 65% intelligible by 2 years


Semantics


• Comprehends approximately 300 words
• Listens as pictures are named
• Listens to simple stories - especially likes ones heard before
• Points to 5 body parts on self or doll
• Responds approximately to yes/no questions (head nod or shake)
• Object permanence fully acquired
• Discriminates food from other objects (e.g., unwraps candy before eating)
• Initiates activities/actions which are present to his/her senses, not those from past experiences
• Uses approximately 50 recognizable words
• Uses names of most familiar objects
• Produces animal sound or uses its name
• Verbalizes toilet needs (closer to 2 years) - may verbalize need before, during or after act
• Identifies and names 5 or more pictures by 2 years
• Says own name on request - refers to self with full name
• Verbalizes immediate experiences
• Combines 2 words into phrase; may use 3 to 4 word responses (2 years)
• Begins to use some verbs and adjectives


Play


• Parallel play - plays near others but not with them
• Talks to self as he/she plays
• Little social give and take - little interest in what others say or do but hugs, pushes, pulls, snatches, grabs, defends rights by kicking and pulling hair
• Does not ask for help
• Procrastinates
• Strings Beads
• Transports blocks in a wagon rather than just building
• Relates actions to object or another person - washes, feeds, combs doll in addition to self
• Likes to play with flexible materials such as clay
• Less rapid shifts in attention
  
  Syntax - Morphology
  
  
• Follows directions using one or two spatial concepts - in/on
• Negation used in form of “no” - (“no bed”)
• Possessive emerging (“daddy car”)
• Refers to self with pronoun and name (“me Tommy”)
• 33% of utterances are nouns
• Combines 2 words into phrase (approximate 2 years) in noun+verb, or noun+adjective format
• Mean length of response - 1.8 words




2.1 - 2.6 (25 - 30 Months)

Phonology


• Much substitution and omission of final consonants
• Approximately 70% intelligible


Semantics


• Comprehends approximately 500 words
• Listens to 5 to 10 minute story
• Carries out series of 2 related commands
• Identifies action in pictures
• Has concept of “one” and “all”
• Uses 200 intelligible words
• Names 6 objects by use
• Repeats two numbers correctly
• Answers “Where” questions
• Answers “What...doing” questions
• Answers “What do you hear with?”


Play


• Parallel play predominates
• Arranges doll furniture into meaningful groups and uses doll figures to act out simple themes from own experience
• aligns 3 or more cubes to make train - pushes train
• Builds tower of 6 to 7 blocks
• Imitates drawing of vertical line


Syntax - Morphology


• Articles “a” and “the” appear in sentences
• Uses present progressive “ing” on verbs
• Regular plural forms emerging (cat-cats)
• Uses in/on correctly
• Irregular past tense emerging
• Uses some contractions in memorized form (don’t, can’t, it’s, that’s)
• 25% of utterances are nouns, 25% verbs
• Combines 3 to 4 words in subject and verb and object format
• Mean length of response - 3.1 words




2.7 - 3.0 Years (31 - 36 Months)

Phonology


• P, b, m, w, h, n tend to be used with high degree of accuracy by most children
• Still some substitution and distortion of consonants
• Continuing to improve intelligibility - now approximately 80% intelligible


Semantics


• Comprehends approximately 900 words
• Points to pictures of 10 objects described by their use
• Listens to 20-minute story
• Knows own sex and difference
• Knows in/on/under
• Knows big/little
• Matches colours
• Completes 3 piece form board - matches shapes
• Is cautious of common dangers, such as stairways, animals
• Has complicated, sequenced routines for daily activities (e.g., bedtime, meals) - objects to change (beginning of time/sequence awareness)
• Uses 500 intelligible words
• Answers 6 to 7 agent/action questions “What runs?”
• Answers simple “Who, Why, Where, How many” questions (3 years)
• Answers one of three questions: “What do you do when you’re hungry, sleepy, cold?”
• Asks simple questions - “What’s that?”
• Yes/no questions emerging - “Is he sleeping?”
• Repeats sentence of 6 to 7 syllables accurately


Play


• Dramatization and imagination begin to enter into play (make believe and pretend)
• Symbolic play
• Beginning interest in cooperative play - plays with others in small groups
• Interest in combining playthings
• Is willing to wait his/her turn
• Puts toys away with some supervision
• Watches cartoons on T.V.
• Names own drawing
• Builds tower of 9 blocks
• Puts together four-part nesting toy
• Stacks 5 or more rings on a peg in order of size
• Imitates drawing a circle and horizontal lines
  
  Syntax - Morphology
  
  
• Auxiliary “is/am” + “ing” (boy is running)
• Uses “is” + adjective (ball is red)
• Regular past tense verbs appear - walk/walked
• Uses “s” for possession (daddy’s car)
• Uses pronouns - I, me, you, mine (he, she and it emerging)
• Negative “not” emerging
• Uses contracted form of “is” (he’s running)
• Adverbs of location emerging (here, there)
• Begins to use do, can and will (emerging future tense)
• Uses imperatives (commands: “go get it”, “don’t”, etc.)
• 20% nouns, 25% verbs
• Infinitive compliment (“I want to play”) emerging
• Mean length of response - 3.4 words




3.0 - 3.7 Years (36 - 43 Months)

Phonology


• P, b, m, w, h mastered
• K, g, t, d, ng, s, r, y are being used consistently although may not be completely mastered
  
  Semantics
  
  
• Comprehends 1200 words
• Knows “in front of “ and “behind” when objects with logical front and back is used
• Identifies hard/soft, rough/smooth
• Identifies circle and square
• Responds to commands involving 2 actions
• Responds to commands involving 2 objects
• Able to match sets (42 months)
• Uses 800 words
• Responds appropriately to simple “How...” question
• Answers 2 of 3 questions: “What do you do when you’re hungry/sleepy/cold?”
• Beginning of question-asking stage - asks mainly “What” and “Who” questions
• Names 8 to 10 pictures
• States action
• Supplies last word of line (“The apple is on the ...”)
• Counts 3 objects, pointing to each


Play


• Builds bridge from model
• Begins associative group play
• Organizes doll furniture accurately and begins using it genuinely imaginative ways
• Draws two or more strokes for a cross on imitation


Syntax - Morphology


• Beginning to use “is” at beginning of questions
• Third person singular present tense(s) emerging (“he runs”)
• Contracted forms of modals - (won’t, can’t)
• Regular plural forms are consistent
• Irregular plural forms emerging (child/children)
• Uses “are” with plural nouns (“boys are running”)
• Uses “and” as conjunction to form compound sentences
• Uses “is”, “are”, “am” in sentences
• Combines 4 to 5 words in sentences brother Mean length of response - 4.3 words




3.7 - 4.0 Years (43 - 48 Months)

Phonology


• L, sh, j are frequently used correctly
• Becoming very intelligible in connected speech
• Continued refinement of articulatory skills taking place Semantics C Comprehends 1500 to 2000 words
• Knows front and back of clothes
• Responds to commands involving three actions
• Recognizes one colour
• Uses 1000 to 1500 words
• Answers 13 agent + action questions
• Does simple verbal analogies (Daddy is a man”, “Mommy is a woman”...)
• Answers (responds appropriately) to “how much” and “how long” (length of time) questions - not necessarily correctly
• Tells two events in order of sequence
• Tells story mixing real and unreal
• Long, detailed conversations
• Repeats 12 to 13 syllable sentences - one of three trials
• Answers 3 of 3 questions: “What do you do when you’re hungry/sleepy/cold?”
• Appropriately answers “What if” questions (“What would you do if you fell down?”)
• Asks how, why, when questions/asks for detailed explanations


Play


• Increase in dramatization of play
• Complicated ideas but unable to carry out in detail - no carryover from day to day
• Prefers to play in group of 2 to 3 children; chooses companion of own sex
• Suggests turns, but often bossy in directing others
• Often silly in play, and may do things wrong purposely
• Puts toys away himself/herself
• Likes to dress up
• Draws a man with 2 parts - adds 3 parts to incomplete man
• Builds and names buildings with blocks
• Gains information from children’s T.V. programs


Syntax - Morphology


• Possessive marker “s” consistent
• Uses regular third person singular (s) consistent
• Uses simple past tense (t, d) consistent - (walk/walked)
• Present progressive “is + ing” consistent
• Contractions used consistently
• Uses negative “not” consistently
• Pronouns: he, she, I, you, me, mine consistent
• “Are, they, their” used inconsistently
• Reflexive pronoun “myself” emerging
• More adverbs of time and manner are being used
• Conjunction “because” emerging
• Uses “got” (“I got it”)
• “What was...” and “What were...” questions emerging
• “Was...” and “Were...” (yes/no questions) emerging (“was he there”)
• Combines 4 to 5 words in sentences
• Complex sentences used frequently
• Imperatives and emphatics used consistently
• Parts of speech now in stable relationship
• Mean length of response - 4.4 words




4.1 - 4.6 Years (49 - 54 Months)

Phonology


• T, d, k, g, n, ng, y mastered
• Uses ch, z and f frequently and accurately
• Should be very few omissions and substitutions of consonants
• Very intelligible in connected speech


Semantics


• Understands concept number of 3 (“Give me just 3")
• Knows between, above, top, bottom
• Names one colour (54 months)
• Recognizes 2 to 3 primary colours (54 months)
• Answers 14 agent + action questions
• Responds appropriately - not necessarily correctly, to “How far” questions
• Defines 4 words in terms of use
• C Counts 4 objects
• Rote counts to 10
• Repeats 4 digits in 1 of 3 trials
• Uses “What do....?”, “Does...?” and “Did...?” questions


Play


• Makes cube gate from model
• Identifies parts missing in 2 pictures
• Shows off dramatically
• Copies square
• Much self-praise


Syntax - Morphology


• “If” and “so” appear in sentences
• Irregular plurals used fairly consistently (child/children)
• “Our, they, and their” used consistently
• Uses “could” and “would” in sentences
• Errors of noun/verb and adjective/noun agreement are frequent
• Combines 4 to 7 words in sentences
• Passive voice emerging in some children - “The dog was kicked by the boy”
• Mean length of response - 4.6 words




4.7 - 5.0 Years (55 - 60 Months)

Phonology


• Th, v, zh used frequently
• Most consonant sounds used consistently and accurately, though may not be mastered in all contexts
• More errors present in difficult consonant blends


Semantics


• Comprehends 2500 to 2800 words
• Answers 2 complex comprehension questions
• Executes 3 commissions
• Points to red, yellow, green and blue on request (60 months)
• Knows heavy/light, loud/soft, like/unlike - discriminates long/short
• Classifies according to form, colour or use
• Uses 1500 - 2000 words
• Repeats two nonsense syllables
• Answers simple “When” questions (“When do you sleep”)
• Answers 15 agent/action questions
• Responds appropriately to “How often, How long” questions
• Asks meaning words
• Tells long story accurately
• Counts 10 objects
• Names first/middle/last
• Identifies missing object from group of 3
• Repeats days of week in sequence


Play


• Likes cutting out and pasting
• Likes working on projects - may carry over from day to day
• Definite interest in finishing what he/she starts
• Plays in group of 2 to 5 - friendships becoming stronger
• Spurred on by rivalry in activity - competition
• Interested in going on excursions
• Draws unmistakable man with body, arms, legs, feet, nose and eyes
• Adds 7 parts to incomplete man
• Copies a triangle
• Watches life situation programs on T.V. - gains information from verbal content (60 months)


Syntax - Morphology


• Possessive pronouns - “his, her” emerge
• Uses “will” to form future tense
• Fewer errors in agreement between adjective/noun
• Reflexive pronouns becoming more consistent
• Comparative (er) emerging - (“bigger”)
• Combines 5 to 8 words in sentences
• Mean length of response - 5.7 words




5.1 - 6.0 Years (61 - 72 Months)

Phonology


• F mastered


Semantics


• Comprehends 13, 000 words (by age 6)
• Answers “What happens if ...” questions
• Understands “opposite of” (“The opposite of hot is...”)
• Differentiates A.M. and P.M.
• Understands yesterday/tomorrow, more/less, some/many, several/few, most/least, before/after, now/later, across, a pair
• Has a number concepts to 10 (“Give me ... blocks”)
• Points to penny, nickel, quarter, dime
• Points to half and whole
• Knows right from left (by age 6)
• Points to named numerals - 1 to 25
• Shifts classifications - classifies according to shape, then colour
• Counts 12 objects correctly
• Recites (rote counts) numbers up to 30
• Repeats 4 digits correctly
• Names basic colours
• Names 5 letters of alphabet (by age 6)
• States similarities and differences of objects
• Describes location or movement: through, away, from, toward, over
• Names position of objects: first, second, third
• Names days of week in order


Play


• Copies drawing or rectangle with diagonals in middle
• Copies drawing of diamond
• Draws man with neck, fingers, clothes, and 2 dimensional legs
• Adds 9 parts to incomplete man
• May start collections
• Able to play games by rules
• Build elaborate things with blocks


Syntax - Morphology


• All pronouns used consistently
• Superlative “est” used (“biggest”)
• Adverbial word endings emerging (slowly, faster, etc.)
• Syntax near normal
• Mean length of response - 6.6 words




6.1 - 7.0 Years (73 - 84 Months)

Phonology


• V, th, l, zh, sh mastered (by age 6½)
• Z, s, th, r, wh mastered (by age 7½)
• Speech is mastered


Semantics


• Comprehends 20,000 to 26,000 words
• Understands roughly the difference in time intervals
• Understands seasons of the year, what you do in each
• Prints phone number and own full name with no model
• Puts numerals 1 - 10 in proper sequential order
• Form letters left to right - reversals and inversions common
• Prints alphabet and numerals from previously printed model
• Writes one syllable words related to sight vocabulary
• Grasps the basic idea of addition and subtraction
• States preceding and following numbers and days of week
• Is aware of mistakes in other people’s speech
• Apt to use slang and mild profanity
• Tells address, both street and number
• Second emergence of question stage - “why”
• Recites the alphabet sequentially - names capital letters, names, lower case by 7, matches upper to lower case
• Sight reads 10 printed words
• Rote counts to 100
• Names numerals 1 -10
• Tells time related to a specific daily schedule


Play


• Obsessive play interest - mania for guns, funny books
• Spends hours at one activity
• Plays alone better than at 6 years
• Group play similar to 6 year old with less ability to pretend and more need to provide necessary paraphernalia
• Demands more realism
• Does not branch out on many novel adventures
• Better at planning what he/she does
• Beginning of inventing and designing
• Strong return to cutting out and colouring
• Fond of table games
• Dramatization of experiences and stories is predominant
• Likes stunts: gymnastics, tumbling, etc.


Syntax - Morphology


• Fairly consistent use of most morphological makers
• “If” and “so” developed by most children
• Reflexive pronouns developed by most children
• Irregular comparatives used more correctly (good, better, best)
• Perfect tense “have” and “had” emerging
• Nominalization occurring: noun forms are developed from verb forms
• Continued improvement on irregular plurals
• Iteration emerging (“You have to clean clothes to make them clean.”)
• Participial compliments emerging
• Passive voice fully developed in most children
• Continued refinement of syntax
• Mean length of response - 7.3 words





COMMON REASONS FOR DELAYED SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

There are a variety of causes for delayed speech development. Each child’s speech development is influenced by a variety of factors which include:


• the ability to hear
• the physical development of the mouth and throat
• inherited abilities


Learning to Talk Involves:


• producing speech sounds
• understanding the meaning and use of words
• combining words into phrases and sentences
• combining sounds to say words and sentences


Common Causes of Delayed Speech Hearing Loss


• mild/temporary loss may be due to ear infections and allergies
• children learn to speak by hearing others speak
• if a child does not hear speech correctly, it will affect his/her ability to speak correctly
• an appointment with an audiologist, a specialist in testing hearing, should be made if there is concern


Mouth Deformities


• physical defects
• structural problems


Motor Control of Mouth Movements


• difficulty with motor control involving movement of lips, tongue and jaw


Metalinguistic Ability


• the knowledge that:
• (1) language is arbitrary
• (2) language is a code
• (3) language is a system of elements and rules for how they go together
• the ability to reflect on language as something that can be talked about just as, for example, a chair or a cat can be talked about
• the ability to manipulate the various elements of oral language for social and/or stylistic purposes


Stages of Metalinguistic Development

Stage One (Ages 1½ - 2):


• distinguish print from non-print
• knows how to interact with books: right side up, pageturning from right to left
• recognizes some printed symbols, e.g., TV characters’ names, brand names, signs